Political Philosophy and Machiavelli Essay

Niccolo Machiavelli is best known for his highly controversial ideas on politics. He began writing about his political ideas after the French invasion because of his desire to reunite Italy after the fall of the republic. As a humanist, Machiavelli disagreed with the current religious based politics that were set in place at the time. His humanist ideas allowed him to focus his political ideas on human potential and achievement rather than religious themes. Even though Machiavelli had a harsh view on the nature of human beings, his unique understanding of the relationship between virtue and politics set the basics for modern political science, and many of his ideas can still be observed in American politics today. Before Machiavelli’s new ideas on political science, politics had been comprised around the ideas of the Christian church. Politics set up by the church relied heavily on good ethics and virtue. The church praised leaders that possessed qualities such as honesty, compassion, chastity, and faithfulness. Machiavelli rejected classic Christian values when thinking about politics and only considered qualities that were useful in preserving power. Machiavelli had a very different idea on the specific qualities that a good prince should possess. He assumed that people in power that possess virtuous qualities could be easily taken advantage of. He viewed these qualities most people deem as good qualities, as a weakness, which could mean the downfall of a state. He believed that the church should only practice its rights in the spiritual realm and not in politics. Since he felt that Christianity destroys the state, he believed that the church should have restricted power in politics. Thus resulting in his ideas on separating the church from state. The more Machiavelli’s ideas on government strayed from the Christian ideals, the more his ideas on politics began to reflect our current American government. This idea of the separation between church and state is only one of several similarities Machiavelli’s political ideas reflects American government. Similarities are seen in the organization of power through fear in the military. Also, his ideas can be seen in American politics when our presidents make decisions based on what is most beneficial, even if it is not always the most virtuous action. Probably one of Machiavelli’s most influential ideas on politics was his belief that it is better to be feared than to be loved. In his eyes, being feared was desirable over being loved since the circumstances of the world make it impossible to be both loved and feared in sequence. He understood it to be crucial that the people respect his authority and power in order for him to be able to maintain unity and loyalty from his people within the state. The only way he believed this to be possible, was to remove himself from compassion and build fear in the people through cruelty. As long as he was able to avoid being hated, this allowed him to rely on what he could control. This idea that it is better to be feared than to be loved can easily be seen within the American military. Powerful armies are not built under friendship and good virtue. They are built under fear and respect. As Americans, we have one of the most powerful military forces in the world. We do not achieve this power by making other countries love us. If we were simply loved to gain respect, rather than feared to gain respect, when the pressure of disagreement arose other countries would not hesitate in the decision to attack. So long as we are feared we hold more power over the decision to take rash action against conflict. Through fear our military guarantees our countries continuous security and prosperity. On the other hand, when it comes to our president’s stand on the question of being loved or feared, it would seem that they would take the opposite stance on the issue. Our American presidents don’t seem to aim at being feared over loved. They fill our minds with the characteristics we find desirable. They aim at making us love, trust, and respect them. Yet, they generally attempt to achieve this love through lies. The government wants us as citizens to love rather than fear, yet as an entire nation, the government aims at remaining a fearful and powerful force in the eyes of other nations. This leads to another difference between American politics, and Machiavellian ideas. Machiavelli stated, â€Å" it is proper to represent things as they are in real truth, rather than as they are imagined† (p. 8). He wanted to avoid creating an imaginary ideal society, as the Christian based politics had before him. In this issue, our government seems to reflect the Christian idea more than Machiavelli’s idea of truth. America’s presidential candidates create their campaigns according to the standards each separate political party would consider to be their ideal image of government. These candidates make promises of perfect ethics and virtue, however, after being elected into office, they very rarely follow through with these promises and ideas of perfection that they have convinced us to believe. They present us with these ideal characteristics in order to receive the popular vote, yet as Machiavelli has explained, as a ruler in order to maintain prosperity and security it is not ideal to follow through with fantasies of virtuous leaders. It would be nice if our presidents followed Machiavelli’s advice and were straightforward and truthful from the start. Since people do not vote for reality and would rather vote for the fairytale, it does not work out his way in our democracy. Machiavelli’s ideas on the significance of virtue in politics may be a result of the way he views human nature. Since he has little hope in the goodness of humanity, he does not hold leaders to the highly positive qualities that the church does. Machiavelli is well known for his negative views on human nature. Even today his name is still largely associated with wickedness. He believed all people to naturally be ungrateful, fickle, liars, and deceivers. He even went so far as to refer to people as wretched creatures. I feel that Machiavelli’s ideas are solid and well thought out. Although, that does not mean that I completely agree with all his ideas, especially those on the nature of humans. I refuse to confer that humankind is naturally evil willed. I like to see the good in people, and to me it seems that the good in this world greatly outweighs the bad. However, I also do not agree that Machiavelli is the tyrant that history has made him out to be. Overall, I believe that most of his ideas aimed at improving the well being of his state. Even though he came off as an evil man it seemed to me that he always had his state’s best interests in mind. The way I see it, his negative understanding of human nature forced him to look at issues from a different perspective than most people of his time, and drove his ideas behind the irrelevance of virtuous traits in a political leader. Many of Machiavelli’s ideas are reflected in American politics. Machiavelli believed in practicing the separation of church and state just as America does. He believed that with fear came power, which is apparent in the United States military. Although many of Machiavelli’s ideas reflect American government there are a few differences between the two, such as the qualities that can be viewed in presidential candidates and how our government goes about the real truth. Overall, Machiavelli’s ideas on virtue and fear, no matter how wicked in nature, seem to properly deem him the founder of the modern political science that our government has been founded off of still today.

Press Statement Essay

An approach to aspects of a child abuse investigation in a modern society using police and community cooperation (A reference to the media)   Ã‚   As traditional communities erode and our societies become more diverse, feelings of insecurity grow, fear of crime increases and questions of identity and citizenship come in question A threat on the safety of our children has culminated to an investigation into the cause and the socio-political aspects of the problem. Our law officers and the stakeholders of the social welfare are investigating and researching on various socio perspectives and trends that are described as possible factors leading to the problem. It’s not commonplace in this society to have incidents of child abuse and as such we are working towards stemming down any possible link and also address the problem collectively through arresting those perpetrating such crimes.   Ã‚   Out of every ten children in our community one of them has reported abuse or aggressive behaviour. 17% of the children report that their attackers were burly or sickly looking. 25% of the children are now afraid of venturing into the neighbourhood. The rate of these abuses has rose up with up to 11% which is a considerable rate.    We have checked on any psychopathic connections to the few cases that have been reported. We are also evaluating theories and investigating curtails that have suspect characters that are substance abusers and their possible involvement. We are comprehensively analyzing socio-economic factors as well as ideological issues which could be eliciting the problem. We believe some people might have ideologies which force them to think and argue that children rights and safety are not important. These ideologies result to hate against children. We also view childless individuals who have developed frustration and stress levels might be involved due to obsession with the idea of harassing other people’s children due to this frustration.      We are establishing stereotyping, class and other social factors which have negative impacts on children social groups. Apart from these theories we understand victimisation based on family and social feuds might victimise children. We are working on looking into any possibilities of parents, select social classes, estate neighbourhoods and school based feuds as being the cause of the problem. Some disgruntled parents or neighbours might be trying to settle scores, seek payment of a debt, drug money and illicit business dealings and other bad dealings gone sour might be causes. We are establishing all these theories so that we can close in on the perpetrators so that not a single aspect of the problem will result to unjust prosecutions or any victimisations.   Ã‚   As members of the society we understand that there are various socio-political aspects of crime pattern and jurisdiction that we have to flow and collectively approach when dealing with suspects. We assure the members of the society that we will not victimise or arrest any suspect without credible evidence on his involvement or connection. We understand and respect all human rights and abide by principles of justice. No suspect will be charged until investigations establish credible evidence of involvement. This will be done according to the law and we will emphasise on justice being administered in accordance to all penal codes as stipulated and comprehensively understood in the judicial system. We attribute rise in crime and related social anomalies to changes in economic structure are altering the pattern of regional inequalities (UNICEF 2006).    On the other hand we blame radical political changes on the faà §ade of some expression values, especially in the fourth estate. Too much exposure of various aspects of the judicial system acts to people with criminal intent has increased affableness to crime due to the knowledge and criticism on aspects of legislation and police action on the issues as well as the legal loopholes. We are encouraging more concise and distinctive media education and publishing in judicial and social values content so that we can have a responsible and safe society. We are sure that political dividing lines of class and religion are eroding and cannot sustain values and ethics of safe and respectable humanity.   Ã‚   The perception of increasing violent crime, often drug related, has gone along with a rise in anti-social behaviour: petty criminality such as vandalism on housing estates, or extreme rudeness, disrespect and lack of consideration for others. (Liddle & Lerais 2006). We expect that all acts against children will come to book in accordance to the United Nations act that protects children against anti-socio behaviour on children (UN 2007). We are optimistic we will arrest and put behind bars those involved and successfully contain the problem. Sources (Liddle & Lerais 2006) Europe’s social reality: pp 5 UNICEF United Nations (www.undp.com )

Judicial Precedent

Judicial precedent: A judgment of a court of law cited as an authority for deciding a similar set of facts; a case which serves as authority for the legal principle embodied in its decision. The common law has developed by broadening down from precedent to precedent. A judicial precedent is a decision of the court used as a source for future decision making. This is known as stare decisis (to stand upon decisions) and by which precedents are authoritative and binding and must be followed. In giving judgment in a case, the judge will set out the facts of the case, state the law applicable to the facts and then provide his or her decision. It is only the ratio decidendi (the legal reasoning or ground for the judicial decision) which is binding on later courts under the system of judicial precedent. Any observation made by the judge on a legal question suggested by the case before him or her but not arising in such a manner as requiring a decision is known as obiter dictum (a saying by the way). There may several reasons for a decision provided by the judge in any given judgment and one must not assume that a reason can be regarded as ‘obiter' because some other ‘ratio' has been provided. Thus, it is not always easy to distinguish ratio decidendi from obiter dictum when evaluating the effects of a particular decision. A single decision of a superior court is absolutely binding on subsequent inferior courts. However, certain of the superior courts regard themselves as bound by their own decisions whilst others do not: 1. Decisions of the House of Lords bind all other courts but the House does not regard itself as strictly bound by its previous decisions, for example, in Murphy v Brentwood District Council (1990) the House elected to overrule its earlier decision in Anns v London Borough of Merton (1978) on the issue of a local authority's liability in negligence to future purchasers of property. 2. The Court of Appeal, Civil Division, holds itself bound by its previous decisions: Young v Bristol Aeroplane Co Ltd (1944) but in that case also identified three exceptional cases where it would disregard its own previous decision. These are (i) where two Court of Appeal decisions conflict; (ii) if the decision although not expressly overruled conflicts with a later decision of the House of Lords; and (iii) if the earlier decision was given per incuriam (through want of care) however it cannot ignore a decision of the House of Lords on the same basis. . Divisional courts of the High Court have adopted the rule laid down in Young's case although judges sitting at first instance are not bound to follow the decisions of other High Court judges although they tend to do so for the sake of certainty Judicial precedent is an important source of English law as an original precedent is one which creates and applies a new rule. However, the later decisions, especially of the higher courts, can have a number of effects upon precedents.. In particular, they may be: †¢Reversed: where on appeal in the same case the decision is reversed, the initial decision will cease to have any effect †¢Overruled: where in a later case a higher court decides that the first case was wrongly decided †¢A refusal to follow: this arises where a court, not bound by the decision, cannot overrule it but does not wish to follow it so it simply refuses to follow the earlier decision †¢Distinguished: where an earlier case is rejected as authority, either because the material facts differ or because the statement of law in the previous case is too narrow to be properly applied to the new set of facts †¢Explained: a judge may seek to interpret an earlier decision before applying it or distinguishing it, thus the effect of the earlier case is varied in the circumstances of the present ca Judicial Precedent Judicial precedent: A judgment of a court of law cited as an authority for deciding a similar set of facts; a case which serves as authority for the legal principle embodied in its decision. The common law has developed by broadening down from precedent to precedent. A judicial precedent is a decision of the court used as a source for future decision making. This is known as stare decisis (to stand upon decisions) and by which precedents are authoritative and binding and must be followed. In giving judgment in a case, the judge will set out the facts of the case, state the law applicable to the facts and then provide his or her decision. It is only the ratio decidendi (the legal reasoning or ground for the judicial decision) which is binding on later courts under the system of judicial precedent. Any observation made by the judge on a legal question suggested by the case before him or her but not arising in such a manner as requiring a decision is known as obiter dictum (a saying by the way). There may several reasons for a decision provided by the judge in any given judgment and one must not assume that a reason can be regarded as ‘obiter' because some other ‘ratio' has been provided. Thus, it is not always easy to distinguish ratio decidendi from obiter dictum when evaluating the effects of a particular decision. A single decision of a superior court is absolutely binding on subsequent inferior courts. However, certain of the superior courts regard themselves as bound by their own decisions whilst others do not: 1. Decisions of the House of Lords bind all other courts but the House does not regard itself as strictly bound by its previous decisions, for example, in Murphy v Brentwood District Council (1990) the House elected to overrule its earlier decision in Anns v London Borough of Merton (1978) on the issue of a local authority's liability in negligence to future purchasers of property. 2. The Court of Appeal, Civil Division, holds itself bound by its previous decisions: Young v Bristol Aeroplane Co Ltd (1944) but in that case also identified three exceptional cases where it would disregard its own previous decision. These are (i) where two Court of Appeal decisions conflict; (ii) if the decision although not expressly overruled conflicts with a later decision of the House of Lords; and (iii) if the earlier decision was given per incuriam (through want of care) however it cannot ignore a decision of the House of Lords on the same basis. . Divisional courts of the High Court have adopted the rule laid down in Young's case although judges sitting at first instance are not bound to follow the decisions of other High Court judges although they tend to do so for the sake of certainty Judicial precedent is an important source of English law as an original precedent is one which creates and applies a new rule. However, the later decisions, especially of the higher courts, can have a number of effects upon precedents.. In particular, they may be: †¢Reversed: where on appeal in the same case the decision is reversed, the initial decision will cease to have any effect †¢Overruled: where in a later case a higher court decides that the first case was wrongly decided †¢A refusal to follow: this arises where a court, not bound by the decision, cannot overrule it but does not wish to follow it so it simply refuses to follow the earlier decision †¢Distinguished: where an earlier case is rejected as authority, either because the material facts differ or because the statement of law in the previous case is too narrow to be properly applied to the new set of facts †¢Explained: a judge may seek to interpret an earlier decision before applying it or distinguishing it, thus the effect of the earlier case is varied in the circumstances of the present ca

Truman and his exchanges of messages with pope pius XII and its Essay

Truman and his exchanges of messages with pope pius XII and its consequences - Essay Example In his first letter to the Pope, he stated that he was dully elected and would ensure that the people in the country lived in a peaceful nation. However, in this letter, he insinuated that the nature of the church was to adore politics and war. The president openly expressed his idea of not calling the Pope His Holiness as this was a title that was only befitting God. Since he was not God or anything closer to God, he would only refer him with his official names. At this point, he also stated that the government was principled to ensure that the church would not meddle in the businesses conducted by the government (Muehlenbeck, 45). Therefore, the church would not be involved in the internal affairs of the government. If the government would include the church in their internal affairs, it would be a retrogressive drill. For instance, he stated that Europe was undeveloped because of indulgence of the church in its internal affairs. In addition to this, the president stated that the c hurch was the leader in instigating war, while pretending to spread peace in the country (Devine, 32). The president included a stern warning that was directed towards the church, stating that the great nation would not be duped into accepting the ways of the wicked. These messages were monumental in that they were directed towards making a peaceful coexistence in the American democracy. In this letters, the Pope openly expressed he need to have urgent solutions to the problems that were in the country. In his letters, he expressed the need to have American relief streams that would help the people, in the war and even after the war that had erupted (Dolezalova, Martin and Papousek, 29). In addition to this, the Pope expressed the need to put the national interests a first priority. With this, he meant that they all were to ensure that the war was not extended to other parts of the country. To maintain a peaceful environment, the Pope suggested that the government should explore all the possibilities that could be used (Burleigh, 11). This was also to ensure there was an end to human suffering which was mostly caused by hostility arising from the conflict in the country. With these events, it is evident that the church and the president were not in agreement. The church was in line with making a peaceful existence in the country, while the president was concerned with the church’s indulgence in the politics of the nation. As such, their differences were not contained (Potworowski, 13). This led to a drift between the church and the president, with the president insisting that the Pope had no powers to control the interests of the country. For instance, in a letter addressed to the Pope, the president openly expressed his concerns of the â€Å"catholic culture† and how it could influence the country if it were given the mandate to govern the world again (Gaddis, 28). In his support, the president also inclined the fact that the government would no t spend its hard earned resources in sending young people to help other people. Though he expressed the need for peace in the United States of America, it was sheer irony (Suderman, 32). The president was not doing anything to control the eruption of war, yet he was on the frontline in condemning the church against their indulgence in the internal affairs of the country. In relaying all the letters addressed to the president, the Pope openly

Extended Definition of a Genre of Film Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Extended Definition of a Genre of Film - Essay Example So he decided to stalk Felicity. He had found out that she had been discharged from the police force a few years ago and lived alone with her mother. Too bad she had asked for police protection after he had made the first threatening call telling her not to interfere or she’d be dead meat, just like all the others†¦' I know who you are and I know where you live' did not, however, have the desired effect of repelling her from the case. He would have to resort to sterner measures. Graham West heaved a heavy sigh as he realized that killing Felicity would be the best thing to do under the circumstances. Maybe he should kill both mother and daughter to make a statement. Busybodies, and damn the police protection- he would have to find a way to sneak into her place without causing suspicion. Wait a minute†¦ he could cut their wires and then pose as a TV repairman or something. But it would not work if she had not called for a serviceman. Thank God they had no picture of h im at Police Headquarters. Graham took his chances late evening one weekend when he was certain the police would be gainfully occupied elsewhere. Felicity did not suspect a thing when she let him in- she must have thought her mother had called for the repairman, so that was that. But what he did not expect was Fred Hurst turning up for tea unexpectedly. He sized up Hurst and decided to take a chance anyway. But they were ready for him and both Felicity and Hurst took Graham down while the mother screamed blue murder.... Dammit, that Cindy Croft at work was too juicy to resist, and such a flirt too. Half the time she was flirting with the young male staff anyway. Such a gold digger- never one for a steady relationship. Too bad he did not mix work and play, or she’d have been one of his victims too. He simply could not risk the chance of being suspected or found out or else it would all be over. It was so thrilling to have a secret life and not be found out yet†¦ the revelation would likely shock all who knew him. With Victim 14’s neck secure on a meat hook in his garage, West turned to other matters requiring his attention. He firmly suspected that the pesky detective Felicity had her eyes on him, all due to some blood of a victim’s type being found in his car. He had fooled them into believing it was his former wife’s blood- they had been divorced just six months ago. But they were not really satisfied. So he decided to stalk Felicity. He had found out that she had b een discharged from the police force a few years ago and lived alone with her mother. Too bad she had asked for police protection after he had made the first threatening call telling her not to interfere or she’d be dead meat, just like all the others†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ I know who you are and I know where you live’ did not however have the desired effect of repelling her from the case. He would have to resort to sterner measures. Graham West heaved a heavy sigh as he realized that killing Felicity would be the best thing to do under the circumstances (Wilson, 45). Maybe he should kill both mother and daughter to make a statement. Busybodies, and damn the police protection- he would have to find a

Chateau de Versailles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Chateau de Versailles - Essay Example Among the most visited historical structures in France, is the Palace of Versailles, (known as Chateau of Versailles in French) which attaches with it a high degree of historical and political significance. The Chateau comes under the head of most visited monuments in France. The vital aspect of preservation of national treasures has been in focus and castles can not be excluded from being so. The rehabilitation of the Versailles shows the keen interest of the country in preserving the presence of such a unique treasure. The basic thought for constructing the Versailles was that it was supposed to be a personal dominion of gratification for Louis, but with its expansion, it was altered into a public centerpiece, displaying the gloire of both the ruler of France and the country itself. Although Versailles lacks the resolutely symbolic proportions, the geometrical planned layout and the utter scale of the gardens show that the intention had been to reflect the brilliantness and constancy of the monarchy which had never been portrayed. The architecture and the expert development along with its rehabilitation has made the castle a masterpiece which has attracted tourist to the site. Even though the chateau has had large queues, people are more than willing to spend hours waiting to explore the structure and ascertain its significance. The history of the chateau started from Louis XIII, on invitation from Gondi, the owner of seigneury of Versailles, went on several hunting trips in the forests of Versailles. Subsequently he ordered construction of a chateau in 1624. In 1632, Louis XIII purchased the seigneury and made extensions to the chateau. The work was limited to the extent that it allowed for mere alterations to the existing chateau. Further, to evade the busy life of Paris and to uphold the dignity under his control, Louis XIV, the Sun king, ordered the construction of the chateau in which he mounted the government. The second construction phase began in 1664 and lasted until Louis XIV's death (1715), this made the chateau into an entirely new building, which was shaped about the Royal Court. Louis le vau was assigned to refurbish expand an antique hunting lodge. From slough land the gardens were created by Le Notre and the hydraulic flaunt of fountains was exercised by Mansart.It was never meant to be a ho me for the King.Versailles was the headquarters of every limb of the state. However, the chateau was deserted after the death of Louis XIV. After Louis XV moved in, it remained as residence of the royal family and there were plans made for extension under Louis XVI, but these never succeeded as the French Revolution intervened, and thereafter it was ruined as the priceless furniture was sold, the pictures were sent away and the palace was turned into a museum. There came a time when it was nearly annihilated by Louis-Philippe. The Chateau now demonstrates on the one hand what remains of the former royal residence, which has an approximate of one hundred and twenty room, and on the other, the Muse d'Histoire (Museum of History) which Louis-Philippe called "Les Galeries Historiques" (Historical Galleries), compromising one hundred and twenty halls. The acts of Louis Philippe can be seen as a huge blow suffered by the monument. However, in 1871 during the Paris commune, it was recogniz ed as a seat for the nationalist government, and so the French parliament met in Louis XV's opera building, up until 1879, which

Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 138

Essay Example The initiative was launched in 2004 for the companies who agree to follow minimum security procedures. As per this initiative, the companies need to allow audits to ensure that the security procedures are followed. The C-TPAT also enforces on importers that their vendors, suppliers and manufacturers are undertaking security audits on their businesses. The Container Security Initiative (CSI) is a Customs program initiated by the US government to inspect high-risk cargo at the foreign ports before shipping into the US. This necessitates on foreign ports to use tamper-free containers and screen all high-risk containers. Currently, 37 foreign ports follow CSI procedure of cargo security that constitute 60 percent of all the cargo shipped into the US each year. European Union cargo security rules did exist since 2003; however, the security rules and procedures have been further augmented making it effective from April 2010. The European Union has initiated air cargo security that aims at establishing the security control of consignments and securing supply chain. Accordingly, the cargo not handled by regulated authorities will be physically screened before its loading into aircraft. Various methods are used such as X-rays, physical checks, sniffer dogs or trace-detection. Every product must pass through customs where a multilayered risk management approach is applied that include an "Authorised Economic Operator" (AEO) program for traders. All members will have detailed monitoring system and regular checks on known consignors (European Commission, 2010). The secure supply chain in the European Union is identified as known freight forwarders that fall in the category of regulated agents. They are obligated to meet strict standards of controls such as background checks on staff, training aspects and legal compliance. This is to facilitate faster clearance without additional security controls such as screening. By end 2013,

How has the adoption of new approaches to risk management changed Essay

How has the adoption of new approaches to risk management changed organisations and the way that managers enact international business strategy - Essay Example This includes the management of both the internal and external risks that are or that may be faced by the organization. Risk management is an important part of strategic management because the process involves the management of existing and potential adverse impacts as well as the realization of opportunities present in the broad business environment. This report deals with an analysis of how the adoption of the new age risk management processes have led to changes in the organizations and the ways the managers of these organizations formulate business and corporate strategies by focusing on the management of risk as a significant part of their strategic management initiatives. Risk management is a process used in domestic and international businesses for the purpose of the identification and assessment of the risks that are currently being faced by the respective businesses and that may be faced in the future by the same followed by developing suitable strategic plans to protect the businesses against the existing and potential risks. Risk in business is generally a term which is used to define the possibilities that in future different internal and external occurrences may lead to losses and harm for the company while at the same time also identifying the fact that the emergence and mitigation of risks may pave the way for new opportunities for these business organizations. Risks are important components to be considered by the managers and planners because, by taking risks, businesses are likely to achieve necessary gains and benefits and also at the same time, the identification and subsequent mitigation of the risks are necessary to ensure sustainabil ity and competiveness of the business in a highly dynamic, competitive and complex global corporate environment. There are many benefits of risk management that have been identified over time. The benefits of integrating risk management processes at all

Ban Texting While Driving Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Ban Texting While Driving - Research Paper Example Many policy makers claim texting on cell phone drifts the attention of the driver from the road since at least one hand or eye must be used to compose the text message, read the message or send a message on cell phone (MacKinnon 295). Virginia Tech Transportation Institute and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) found out that driver inattention is responsible for about 30 percent of road crashes in the State (Pittman 73). Ban on texting while driving should be implemented across all States to control road accidents. Talking on cell phones (hand-held) is currently banned in 10 states that include Maryland, Nevada, New Jersey, Washington, Oregon, New York, Delaware, California, Connecticut and West Virginia, and the District of Columbia (Flynn 156). The use of cell phone by novice drivers is restricted in more than 30 states while text messaging while driving is restricted in 39 states including District of Columbia. School bus drivers are banned from texting while driving in Texas, Oklahoma and Mississippi while novice drivers are banned from texting in New Mexico, Missouri and Texas. The ban on texting is enforced under secondary laws in other states whereby the law enforcement officers will have other reasons for stopping motor vehicles before charging the driver for use of cell phones. Arkansas has a primary law that has banned drivers between the age of 18 years to 21 from using hand-held devices while driving through highways or school zones while Illinois has banned drivers in construction zones or school speed zones from using hand-held devices. However, California has exempted use voice activated and hands-free cell phones while Illinois provides exemptions to drivers who text to communicate an emergency situation to emergency personnel. â€Å"Motorists who use cell phones while driving are four times likely to cause accidents and injuries according to Insurance Institute for Highway Safety† (Flynn

Morality & Ethics Essay Example for Free

Morality Ethics Essay J. M. FINNIS: Rules made, in accordance with regulative legal rules, by a determinate and effective authority (itself identified and standard constituted as an institution by legal rules) for a ‘complete’ community, and buttressed by sanctions in accordance with the rule-guided stipulations of adjudicative institutions. [1] NATURALISTS ST. THOMAS AQUINAS: A rational ordering of things which concern the common good, promulgated by whoever is charged with the care of the community. [2] SOCIOLOGISTS ROSCOE POUND: Law is more than a set of abstract norms, it is also a process of balancing conflicting interests and securing the satisfaction of the maximum wants with the minimum of friction. [3] WHAT IS MORALITY? No single definition can be offered to describe what morality is, but in general morality can be understood as a rule prescribing between what is wrong and what is wrong. It could also mean a value of the acceptable and unacceptable norm of a given society. Some reserve terms moral and immoral only for the realm of sexuality and use the words ethical and unethical instead of the word moral when discussing how the business and professional communities should behave towards their members or toward the public. [4] RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LAW AND MORALITY 1. The existence of unjust laws proves that morality and law are not identical and do not coincide. 2. The existence of laws that serve to defend basic values, law and morality can work together. 3. Laws can state what overt offenses count as wrong and punishable. 4. Laws govern conduct at least partly through fear of punishment. 5. Morality can influence the law in the sense that it can provide the reason for making whole groups of immoral elections illegal. 6. Law can be a public expression of morality which codifies in a public way the basic principles of conduct which a society accepts. [5] PUBLIC PROSECUTOR v MOHD ROMZAN BIN RAMLI[6] BRIEF EXPLANATION ON THE CASE: Mohd Romzan bin Ramli was charged under the offence of incest under the provision of section 376A of the Penal Code- a person is said to commit incest if he or she has sexual intercourse with another person whose relationship to him or her is such that he or she is prohibited, under the law, religion, custom or usage applicable to him or her, to marry that person; and was sentenced to six years of imprisonment and one stroke of rotan under section 376B(1)- punish with imprisonment between 6 to 20 years and whipping; of the same Code. The accused had committed the crime in between early January 2006 to 26th May 2006 in a room at his house in Kulai, Johor Bharu, Johor. To an 11-year old girl, Nurul Atikah bte Abdul Kadir, which is also his stepdaughter. In 2006, the girl was forced to undress by the accused and was disturbed sexually by him. He had done the disturbance to her several times. In addition, he threatened her not to tell anyone and had beaten her. Father of the victim, lodged a police report after he had noticed changes in his daughter after he had picked her from his ex-wife’s home. After medical check-ups were done by the doctor, the victim suffered from injuries in her private part and was treated by a psychologist. The accused pleaded guilty in front of the judge,Zawawi Salleh in the High Court of Johor Bharu, prosecuted by the Deputy Public Prosecutor, Husmin Hussin (Johor, State Legal Advisor Office). However, his sentences was changed to eleven years of imprisonment and three strokes of rotan, after the case was appealed to the High Court Of Johor Bharu from the Sessions Court Johor Bharu. The sentences were changed as it was unfair to the victim by taking her trauma and injuries into account and the public views about this case. OPINION/CONCLUSION In my opinion, the action of appealing the judgement made by the Sessions Court of Johor Bharu was a just and fair decision. Six years of imprisonment with one stroke of rattan is too little compared to the crime. According to John Austin, he defines law as a command given by a sovereign who may be a King, council or parliament. Such a command in his view is backed by coercion so that any person who violates the law, suffer the pain provided by law. [7] The accused needs to be punished for what he had done to the victim. The victim was just a little, innocent girl compared to him whose already old enough to think about right and wrong. Secondly, punishments for committed crimes are not only to punish the criminals, it is also as a deterrence to the public to not commit the same crime as they will be punished in accordance with the law too. Six years imprisonment and one stroke of rattan are not sufficient enough to deter the crime. As John Austin stated on why do we have to obey the law? It is because of the fear of sanction. Austin view is the fear by which the law, by its coercive power, strikes in the heart of the people is what makes people obey the law. If we remove the element of fear from the law, it would not be obeyed as there would be no deterrence. In other words, if a law is made without sanction, it would be disobeyed. [8] Lastly, after the High Court Judge of Johor Bharu sentenced the accused to eleven years of imprisonment and three strokes of rattan, only then, the justice can be seen. Bentham refers justice as maximum happiness of maximum number of people. [9] The public’s views on the case are also need to be considered. Minimum sentences given could cause an uproar in the society. Even Hart mentioned that justice is a shared concept; everybody wants justice seen and done. This is also supported by the aim of having law is to maintain peace and harmony. [1] M. D. A Freeman, Lloyd’s Introduction to Jurisprudence, page 178. [2] M. D. A Freeman, Lloyd’s Introduction to Jurisprudence, page 143. [3] Hari Chand, Modern Jurisprudence, 1994, International Law Book Services, Kuala Lumpur, page 205. [4] Jacques T. Ethics Theory and Practice, (5th ed. ). New Jersey: Prentice Hall, (1995): 3. [5] Basic Observations on Law and Morality. 10 September 2001. Web. 13 August 2012. [6] â€Å"Public Prosecutor v Mohd Romzan bin Ramli. † Malayan Law Journal, 22nd January 2012. Web. 13th August 2012. . [7] Hari Chand, Modern Jurisprudence, page 72,80,81. [8] Hari Chand, Modern Jurisprudence, page 74. [9] â€Å"Jeremy Bentham. † N. p. Web. 14th August 2012. .

Sniffing Attacks Prevention and Detection Techniques

Sniffing Attacks Prevention and Detection Techniques Security in Wired/Wireless Networks:  Sniffing Attacks Prevention and Detection Techniques in Wired and Wireless Local Area Networks (LAN) ABSTRACT During the past era, Information Technology made a revolution in RD. No doubt Internet becomes an essential backbone for all sciences and research nowadays. Accordingly security threats and data banks attacks turn out to be a phenomenon. Thus, granting protection to such crucial information becomes a high demand. While reviewing the latest studies in this area, there are strong signs that attacking information warehouse is the hot topic nowadays. Moreover, preventing attacks to TCP/IP networks and what are the most efficient techniques to protect it, is the most targeted research area for security experts. For instance, what so called the Man-in-the-Middle attack [MiM] and Denial of Service [DoS] are just some ways of vulnerable attacks to TCP/IP networks, using some tools available free on the internet. They are sniffing the data traffic or causing service denial. In our research, we evaluated the most famous security solutions and classifying them according to their efficiency against detecting or preventing the types of Address Resolution Protocol [ARP] Spoofing attacks. Based of the surprising experimental results in the security lab, we proposed an optimal algorithm to enhance their ability Keywords: Sniffing Attacks, ARP cache poisoning, Man-in-the-Middle [MiM], Intrusion Prevention Detection technique [IPS/IDS], Denial of Service [DoS] CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Overview As we mentioned in the abstract section that this research is focusing on the internal attack within the local area network [LAN] which is forming the major and critical attacks which the network resources are exposed to according to recent studies conducted in the Information Security domain[1]. We will demonstrate two major attacks affecting the Internet users the local network; The MiM attack[2] (Man-in-the-Middle Attack) and DoS (Denial-of-Service). There are many tools and softwares widely available and for free of cost which can carry out many attacks over the network and violate the privacy of users, such tools like Sniffers[3] monitors data traveling over a network, it either can be of authorized or unauthorized function. It was started initially as a Network Analyzer to help the Administrator to perform health check and maintain the network activities; however it is used today to redirect the traffic and access confidential files. Traditionally, research in the area of information and communication security focused on helping developers of systems prevent security vulnerabilities in the systems they produce, before the systems are released to customers. the majority of studies on network security, are considering only the external attacks. Internal as well as external are of the outmost importance when it comes to information security, but need to be complemented with more depth research for developing detection and prevention mechanisms, and studying internal threats. The research plan we followed in our work presented here are as follows: a. Address Resolution Protocol [ARP] b. ARP Spoofing attack [Poisoning] c. ARP Spoofing based MiM DoS attacks d. Experiments e. Optimal ARP Spoofing detection algorithm f. Results analysis g. Conclusion 1.1.1 What is an ARP: The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) [4] is used by computers to map network addresses (IP) to physical addresses or what is usually refer to: Media Access Control addresses (MAC). It translates IP addresses to Ethernet MAC addresses and classified as a Networking protocol used to find hosts address given its IP address. Some network expert consider it as a DataLink Layer protocol because it only operates on the local area network or point-to-point link that a host is connected to[5]. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is documented in RFC 826[1] and later it was adopted by other media, such as FDDI[6]. For more details about Internet Protocols Suits; see appendix [1] 1.1.2 How it works: The ARP Process RARP As we stated formerly from an architecture perspective, ARP is a layer 3 function (Network), however in a programming perspective ARP is considered as layer 2 (Datalink) because it calls the LAN data like layer code. RARP is stand for; Reverse Address Resolution Protocol, and it is a network protocol used to resolve a MAC address to the corresponding network layer address, i.e. RARP is used to map a MAC address to an IP address exactly the reverse function of the ARP request/reply. 1.1.3 Types of ARP/RARP protocol messages: There are four types of ARP massages that are sent by an ARP protocol: a. ARP request b. ARP reply c. RARP request d. RARP reply As we just said in the definition, ARP is used to map network address (IP) to physical address (MAC) and when a host need to communicate with another host it needs to know its MAC address. Here comes ARP protocol and works by broadcasting a packet (ARP-Request) for any hosts connected over the Ethernet network. The ARP packet contains the IP address of the sender and the IP address of the target it is interested in communicating with. See (1.2) and (1.3): However, the target host, identifying that the IP address in the ARP request packet is belong to itself, so it returns an answer back in a unicast reply (ARP-Reply) and the host which initiated the ARP request catches the [IP,MAC] pair and keeps it in ARP cache memory. Keeping the host reply in cache will minimize the ARP traffic in the LAN. See (1.4): So simply when the ARP request is broadcasted to all PCs on the network it asks the following question: Is x.x.x.x is your IP address?, if Yes send back your MAC address. Then every PC checks if its IP address is matching the one in ARP request and sends ARP reply with its MAC address. But the repeated ARP requests especially when it is broadcasted every time a MAC address is required; creates a high traffic in the network, and hence the Operating Systems keep copy of the ARP replies in the computers cache memory and update it frequently with any new pair, this will help in reducing the ARP requests number[9]. By the way ARP spoofing technique which we are going to talk about in the next chapter is occurring when forged ARP replies is created and sent to the source computer who initiated the ARP request formerly and updated its ARP cache with fake information. We will know afterward this kind of exploitation is called poisoning the ARP cache. The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol [RARP] is broadcasting a RARP request packet with the target MAC address which will be received by all hosts in the Ethernet network. Host which its MAC address is matching the one in the RARP request will reply with its IP address in the RARP reply packet and sends it to the host which initiated the RARP request. Afterward the IP address which consists of 32 bit will be converted to 48 bit Ethernet address, by the suitable encapsulation mechanism. This is the common practice for the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), which is documented in RFC 826 [51]. ARP defines the exchanges between network interfaces connected to an Ethernet media segment in order to map an IP address to a link layer address on demand. Link layer addresses are hardware addresses (although they are not unchallengeable) on Ethernet cards; where the IP addresses are logical addresses assigned to machines attached to the Ethernet. Accordingly a Datalink layer address is known by other names, i.e. Ethernet Addresses, Media Access Control (MAC) Addresses, and even Hardware Addresses. However, the correct term from the kernels perspective is Link Layer Address because this address can be changed via command line tools [50]. 1.1.4 ARP and RARP message formats: The ARP packet consists of Ethernet Header and Data packet; the Ethernet header is divided to: 6 bytes for the destination address 6 bytes for source address 2 bytes for the frame type in hexadecimal (e.g. 0806 for ARP 8035 for RARP) Where, the data packet structure of ARP packet is encapsulated and the information that every part holds are demonstrated in the following table[10]: Table 1.1: ARP and RARP packet structure + Bits 0 7 Bits 8 15 Bits 16 31 0 Hardware type (HTYPE) Protocol type (PTYPE) 32 Hardware length (HLEN) Protocol length (PLEN) Operation (OPER) 64 Source hardware address [MAC] (SHA) (first 32 bits) 96 Source hardware address (last 16 bits) Source protocol address (first 16 bits) 128 Sender protocol address (last 16 bits) Destination hardware address (first 16 bits) 160 Destination hardware address (THA) (last 32 bits) 192 Destination protocol address (TPA) Hardware address type (2 bytes). 1=Ethernet Protocol address type ( 2 bytes). 0800H (hexadecimal) = IP address Operation type; 1 = ARP request, 2=ARP reply, 3=RARP request, 4=RARP reply etc†¦. 1.1.5 TCP Standard Ports/Services The table below is showing, a list of services and ports used by TCP protocol: Table 1.2: TCP Ports and Services Port # Keywords Description 20 FTP-DATA File Transfer [Default Data] 21 FTP File Transfer [Control] 23 TELNET TelNet [Telecommunication network ] 25 SMTP Simple Mail Transfer 37 TIME Time 42 NAMESERVER Host Name Server 43 NICNAME Who Is 53 DOMAIN Domain Name Server 79 FINGER Finger 80 HTTP WWW 110 POP3 Post Office Protocol Version 3 111 SUNRPC SUN Remote Procedure Call CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Background 2.1.1 ARP Spoofing based on MiM and DoS attacks ARP spoofing is also called; ARP poison routing (ARP) or ARP cache poisoning or ARP Cache Corrupting. It is a method of attacking an Ethernet local area network by updating the target ARP cache with a forged ARP request and reply packets[9]. This will try to change the target MAC address by another one which the attacker has a control on it. Updating ARP cache with a fake entry value is so called ARP Poisoning. What is sniffer? or (The Network Analyzer); it is a software or a hardware which log the traffic over a network and captures the data packets, then decodes the packets and analyzes the content. Kindly notice in our research that the following terms; Spoofing, Poisoning and Cache Corrupting are referring to the same term . Furthermore, since ARP is considered as a trusted protocol within the network and is not designed to deal with malicious activities in the network, so attackers found unusual ways to illegitimately penetrate into the network; causing harmful costs. These harms or costs can be much worse when the attacker tries to impersonate another user, performs Man-in-the-Middle attacks (MiM), or even causes Denial of Service (DoS) on a Server or even the whole Network[11]. P.S. Spoof means: hoax or imitation. Thanks to the British comedian Arthur Roberts (1852-1933), who introduced the word spoof to the world in the 19th century. He invented a game and called it Spoof, it incorporates tricks nonsense[12]. Why it is so difficult to detect sniffers? †¢ The attack is essentially performed in the passive mode, which means it is hidden and working in the backend so the standard user will not recognize such attacks. Besides it is not easily for user to detect the sniffing since this kind of attacks is generating usual traffic over the network. †¢ The other point is the fact that sniffers can be normally linked to an active intrusion attacks. While talking about the requirement and resources; sniffing is only requiring a standard machine connected over the network with normal hardware configurations and there is no need to special requirements or high performance. †¢ Threat is always seen as external and many researches shows that most of the attacks are from the internal resources; according to the recent Global security surveys in 2009[13], another study [14] shows that internal threat is incredible increased to more than 80% of the security breaches, where external attacks showed about 15% with internal help and 5% just from pure outsiders. 2.1.2 How ARP caches are updated? Let us recall how the communication happens on an Ethernet LAN. As we early stated that all communications in layer 2 is based on the MAC address, so for any PC wants to talk to a target on the network is has to address it to the targets MAC address. If a source computer tries to communicate with another computer in TCP/IP based network it has to translate the targets IP into the corresponding physical address (MAC) and here where we use an ARP protocol. The translation happens by request/reply ARP broadcast processes. When the ARP requester receives the reply, it catches the pair and keep it in its ARP cache memory so it wont ask for it over again[15]. 2.1.3 ARP Cache Poisoning (Spoofing) Attack It is the process of corrupting an ARP cache with fake IP/MAC entries. It also used to perform some other attacks, for instance:  § Man-in-the-Middle (MiM) attack, also known as (MITM)  § Denial of Service (DoS) attack (refer to section 3.2) As we discussed earlier if an entry is exist in the ARP cache, then it can be updated or corrupted using ARP reply or ARP request. But what about if the entry; is NOT exist in the ARP cache? The answer is: ARP request packets always work to corrupt any Operating System ARP cache whether the entry exists or not in the ARP cache. On the other hand, for hackers, ARP requests allow them to corrupt always the target ARP caches! A recent study[16] showed by experiment the impact of the ARP request update on different Operating Systems. An experiment revealed which OS with dynamic entries in the ARP cache was vulnerable to the ARP cache poisoning attack. 2.1 [17], an evaluation for the impact of the ARP request update on different Operating Systems, e.g. Windows XP Professional, Windows 2000, 2003 Server, Linux 2.x, and Solaris 5.9: Table 2.1: ARP request impact on various OS Windows XP Windows 2000 Windows 2003 Server Linux 2.4 Linux 2.6 Free BSD 4.11 SunOS Solaris5.9 Entry exist in ARP cache? Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No ARP request √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ ARP reply √ X √ √ √ X √ X √ X √ √ √ √ √ = ARP request or reply message is accepted by the system allows the update or creation of MAC / IP entry X = ARP request or reply message is rejected by the system doest NOT allow update creation MAC/IP entry The results of the experiment indicated that: 1. If the entry does not exist in the ARP cache, all tested OSs, except Windows 2000, Free BSD 4.11 and SunOS Solaris 5.9, will not allow the creation of a new entry by an ARP reply message. 2. If the entry does not exist in the ARP cache, all tested OSs allow the creation of a new entry by an ARP request message. 3. However, if the entry existed already in the ARP cache, all tested OSs allowed its update by an ARP reply (even in the absence of an ARP request) or request message. Therefore, when using ARP reply messages, the ARP cache poisoning attack becomes difficult to realize against most OSs. However, it remains indeed possible when using ARP request messages. In conclusion, most common OSs are still vulnerable to the ARP cache poisoning attack. Malicious users can first use ARP request messages to create fake IP/MAC entries in the ARP caches of their target hosts. Then, fake ARP reply massages are used to maintain the existence of fake IP/MAC entries in the ARP caches of the target hosts. 2.1.4 Example of ARP Cache Spoofing As mentioned above the ARP Spoofing process is mainly to corrupt the ARP cache of any host over the network with fake IP/MAC pair in order to perform some serious attacks such as Man-in-the-Middle attack [MiM] or Denial-of-Service [DoS]. In the following demonstration we will show the two different steps before and after the ARP cache poisoning is taking place, in the (2.1) and (2.2). 2.1.4.1 ARP Cache Spoofing (before ARP corruption) In (2.1) its clear that the ARP cache table is legitimate for all hosts connected to the network via a switch, where we can see that every IP-address is mapped to a valid and corresponding MAC-address for that host. For instance; in ARP cache table of the host â€Å"A† ; the IP-address of the host â€Å"B† is mapped with the MAC-address of the host â€Å"B†. And the same case is applied on host â€Å"C†. On the other hand, in ARP cache table of the host â€Å"B† for example; the IP-address of the host â€Å"A† is mapped with the MAC-address of the host â€Å"A†. And the same case is applied on host â€Å"C†. Let us see what changes may occur after the cache poisoning: 2.1.4.2 ARP Cache Spoofing (after corruption) In (2.2): Host â€Å"C† is the malicious host in this scenario. It corrupted the ARP cache tables for both hosts â€Å"A† and â€Å"B†. The ARP cache table for host â€Å"A† is becoming illegitimate now, where we can see that every IP-address is mapped to an invalid and not the corresponding MAC-address for that host. For instance; in ARP cache table of the host â€Å"A† ; the IP-address of the host â€Å"B† is mapped with the MAC-address of the host â€Å"C†. And the same case is applied on host â€Å"B†. In this case whenever the host â€Å"A† want to communicate with host â€Å"B†, the TCP/IP traffic will be guided to pass by the malicious host â€Å"C† instead of â€Å"B†..! So what..? Hackers use the process of generating such abnormal ARP request packets to corrupt the ARP cache for certain hosts and perform different attacks over the network (e.g. MiM or DoS). 2.1.5 Gratuitous ARP: This process is concerned about IP address duplication attack. Such a situation is due to the case when a host sends an ARP request to look for its MAC. This may occur when the host reboots, or once changing its Ethernet Number or the IP address[17]. Gratuitous ARP is doing the following tasks: i. Finding IP address conflicts in the Network by verifying if there is another host that has the same IP address and displaying this message:  « duplicate IP address sent from Ethernet address: a:b:c:d:e:f » . ii. If a host changing its MAC or IP address by sending an ARP request, then it will force to update the ARP cache on the Network with the new MAC/IP address P.S. ARP Gratuitous is mainly influence old Operation Systems, such as; Windows XP SP1 or older. 2.1.6 MiM attack: The man-in-the-middle attack, (abbreviated as: MiM, or sometimes: MITM[18]) comes from the Packet-Sniffing[19]. MiM doesnt listen to all the packets that walk along the network as the Sniffer works, however it interfere with one or more hosts in the network and starts snooping between them. Such hosts been listened by a MiM are commonly called victims. A victim can be a normal host (e.g. PC or Notebook), gateway or even a router! An attacker who is mainly spying between two or more victims; is establishing a autonomous connections between the victims and convey messages between them as if they are directly connected. And hence we call him: Man-in-the-Middle. So far MiM is just listening to the traffic passing through two victims. Although this kind of outrage is illegitimate and can reach sensitive information like passwords, e-mail messages, encryption keys†¦etc. however it become worse and worse when he tries to go further than and inject false and fake packets and convey them between the deceived victims. According to[20] MiM attack is classified as an active attack, because the hacker manages the traffic in the network between the source and the destinations. MiM is very famous approach used by hackers nowadays and uses the ARP protocol in order to attack the ARP-Cache tables and hence control the targets[21]. By poisoning the ARP tables for all hosts in the network for example; will instruct the hosts to reroute the traffic to the Attacker host instead of the Gateway, where he starts interfering between any two or more victims. One more thing needs to be mentioned that the attacker has to forward all the interrupted packets to the original destination, so that the synchronized connection will remain and doesnt time out! In the above ; ARP spoofing occurs when sending a fake and spoofed ARP reply to the target, i.e. if the Attacker has an IP: [10.10.1.10] and wants to sniff the traffic between the Victim who has an IP: [10.10.1.20] and the Gateway which has an IP: [10.10.1.254] it simply sends fake ARP replies to associate its own MAC address with the Gateway IP [10.10.1.254]. The Victim then is trapped and starts sending all the packets intended to the Gateway to the Attacker address as in the above illustration. 2.1.7 Denial of Service [DoS]: DoS attacks; occurring when any suspicious host over the network performs ARP cache poisoning and receives any packet designated to the original target to the suspicious host and cause a block in the connection between the host and the target which is being attacked. Kindly notice that more details regarding Denial of Service [DoS] will be discussed in section (3.2) in chapter No. 3. 2.2 Evaluation Of Common Intrusion Detection Systems And Intrusion Prevention Systems 2.2.1 ARP cache poisoning and MiM attacks: The ARP cache spoofing attack and the Man-in-the-Middle attack are usually maintained and controlled by humans[22]. There are many solutions proposed in solving this type of security threat, based on different mechanisms or protocols at different OSI model layers; such as; Application layer, Network layer and Data link layer[16]. 2.2.2 Detection of ARP cache poisoning attack: Arpwatch[23] and Snort[24] are tools that are able to detect ARP cache poisoning attack by checking each packet contents. To do that, these tools monitor Ethernet activities and keep databases of Ethernet MAC/IP address pairs. If an analyzed packet has an Ethernet MAC/IP address pair, which does not appear in their databases, then the system administrator is alerted. Arpwatch and Snort are sensors that need to have access to monitoring ports on the switches (usually, known under the name of SPAN port, or mirroring port) or be placed in locations where they can see all the network traffic. Therefore, it would be more interesting and efficient to detect any ARP anomalies without the use of any access privilege or special ports on the switches. This is the case since substantial performance impact can be caused when port mirroring is in effect. This strategy makes ARP spoofing detection based on sniffing not quite viable on switched LAN networks[16]. 2.2.3 Packets sniffing and MiM attacks: On shared broadcast LAN networks, such as hubbed and wireless networks, packets sniffing can easily be achieved with minimal efforts. However, a switched LAN environment presents a different problem with few available techniques for sniffing. The first technique consists of connecting to an administrative port on the Switch and setting it to broadcast mode. The administrative port will now receive all traffic. A second technique is summarized by sending a large number of spoofed packets, which is usually an ARP packet (Address Resolution Protocol) to the Switch so it fails to open and sends all packets to all ports. However, a recent study[25] shows that only old switches models are vulnerable to this attack. Another technique, which is based on the MiM attack, is to tell target hosts on the LAN network to use an attackers MAC address in order to get to any other host. This technique is based on the generation of malicious ARP traffic. The attacker host takes a copy of the received t raffic then forwards it to the correct host. Today, security devices, such IDSs (An intrusion detection system) [26] and IPSs (An Intrusion Prevention System)[27], have become a standard component of security solutions used to protect computing assets from hostile attacks. IDSs are able to detect many types of attacks, such as denial of service (DoS) and IP spoofing attacks. But, their ability and reliability to detect certain attacks are still questionable, notably the MiM attack. Prevention mechanisms, such as S-ARP[28] and O-ARP[29] lack efficient implementation on real systems and for a performance evaluation 2.2.4 Prevention mechanisms based on secure ARP protocols: A number of cryptographic protocols have targeted issues related to ARP security. For example, S-ARP[28] is a popular ARP security protocol that uses asymmetric cryptography utilizing digitally signed ARP replies. At the receiving end, an entry is updated if and only if the signatures are correctly verified. S-ARP is considerably slow as can be deduced from the results presented in[28]. Furthermore, S-ARP can not prevent against cache poisoning attacks. a. O-ARP technique: O-ARP[29] is a secure ARP technique that is similar to S-ARP with regards to its message format and key management. However, it uses cryptography only when necessary and tries to avoid it when ever possible. The authors in[29] claim that O-ARP is much faster than S-ARP on the average, and can be used as security measure to prevent against cache poisoning attacks. Meanwhile, the authors did not implement O-ARP in any operating system to obtain measurements for its performance. In[30] the authors proposed another Secure Address Resolution Protocol. In this protocol, a secure server shares secret keys with each host on a subnet. The server maintains a database of MAC/IP address mappings, which is updated periodically through communication with each host. All ARP requests and replies occur between a host and the server, and replies are authenticated using the shared pair keys. The main drawback of this technique is congestion at the server, which constitutes a single point of failure in the network. b. Ticket-based Address Resolution Protocol Ticket-based Address Resolution Protocol (TARP)[31] is another secure ARP protocol. TARP is built as an extension to ARP. TARP implements security by distributing centrally issued secure MAC/IP address mapping attestations through existing ARP messages. These attestations, called tickets are given to clients as they join the network and are subsequently distributed through existing ARP messages. Unlike other popular ARP-based solutions, the costs per resolution are reduced to one public key validation per request/reply pair in the worst case. However, networks implementing TARP are vulnerable to two types of attacks-active host impersonation, and DoS through ticket flooding. In addition, TARP does not include support for dynamic environments, mainly when hosts IP addresses changes dynamically. c. Cryptographic Technique Another approach was presented in[32], where the authors proposed a cryptographic technique. The technique is based on the combination of digital signatures and one time passwords based on hash chains. d. ARPSec protocol Moreover, in[33], the ARPSec protocol was proposed as an ARP security extension that intends to solve the security weaknesses of the ARP protocol. ARPSec provides an anti-replay protection and authentication using a secret key shared only by the source and the destination of the packet computed by an authenticated Diffie-Hellman exchange. Unfortunately, no real-time implementation or performance evaluations on actual network systems were performed to quantify their efficiency. At the network layer, the IPSec[34] protocol can be used to facilitate the confidentiality, integrity, and authentication of information communicated using the IP protocol. IPSec proposes solutions for many security issues within the IP protocol, but does not prevent any malicious users from manipulating ARP packets, at the Data link layer, or redirecting target network IP traffic to other destinations. IPSec guaranties the confidentiality and integrity of the redirected IP traffic, but cannot prevent malicious users from causing DoS attacks on target hosts. 2.2.5 Protection mechanisms at the Application layer: Recently, several security protection mechanisms have been proposed at the Application layer. However, such mechanisms might not be effective against certain attacks at the lower layers, mainly at the Data Link layer. For example, in[35], the authors argued that most deployed user authentication mechanisms fail to provide protection against the MiM attack, even when they run on top of the SSL/TLS protocol or other similar protocols. The authors then introduced the notion of SSL/TLS session-aware user authentication, and elaborated on possibilities to implement it. Another example is the Interlock protocol, proposed in[36], which was later shown to be vulnerable to attacks when used for authentication[37]. For enhanced security at the Application layer, in[38] a new proposed technique called Delayed Password Disclosure (DPD) was shown to complement a password-based authentication and key exchange protocol to protect against a special form of the MiM attack, the doppelganger window att ack. On the other hand, in[39] the authors proposed the notion of a Password Protection Module (PPM) that provides protection against the MiM attack for certain situations. PPMs are effective only if they take into account network-related information, such as IP addresses and URLs. This makes PPMs very difficult to deploy and manage. Additional protection mechanisms were proposed in[40] to secure tunneled authentication protocols against the MiM attack. In most cases, prevention mechanisms at the Application layer guarantee the confidentiality and integrity of the traffic exchanged but do not prevent malicious users from redirecting network traffic to their hosts. 2.2.6 External protection mechanisms: Several attempts have been made to address the above security issues through methods external to the ARP protocol. For example, it has been proposed that hosts can statically be cond[41] . This would incur a huge administrative overhead and is largely intractable for dynamic environments. Conversely, the port security[42] features available in recent switches restrict the use of physical ports to con MAC addresses. If an attacker forges its own MAC address and includes an additional frame header containing malicious mapping, poisoning a victims ARP cache can still be possible. This approach only prevents certain kinds of MAC hijacking, but does nothing to prevent MiM attack. Hence, it is only a partial and in many ways limited solution

Effects of GABA on Anxiety Disorder

Effects of GABA on Anxiety Disorder Keywords: Anxiety, Moringa pudding, HIV/AIDS, GABA.   Indonesias first case of HIV was reported in 1987 and between then and 2009, 3,492 people died from the disease (Fred, 2012). Of the 11,856 cases reported in 2008, 6,962 of them were people under 30 years of age, including 55 infants under 1 year old (Seligson and Peterson, 2010). There are a high number of concentrated cases among Indonesias most at risk including injection drug users (IDUs), sex workers their partners and clients, homosexual men and infants who contract the disease through the womb or from being breast fed (Chris, 2012). In the last 15 years, HIV/AIDS has become an epidemic in Indonesia. The highest concentration areas are Papua, Jakarta, East Java, West Java, Bali and Riau and all are considered to be zones that need immediate attention. Due to the increasing number of IDUs, the number of new infections has grown rapidly since 1999. Moreover, a generalised epidemic is already under way in the provinces of Papua and West Papua, where a population based survey found an adult-prevalence rate of 2.4% in 2006 (Broman, 2009). A whopping 48% of Papuans are unaware of HIV/AIDS, and the number of AIDS cases per 100,000 people in the two provinces is almost 20 times the national average. The percentage of people who reported being unaware of HIV/AIDS increases to 74% among uneducated populations in the region (Braet et al., 2007). (The epidemic in Indonesia is one of the fastest growing among HIV/AIDS in Asia. The epidemic of injecting drug use continues to be the primary mode of transmission, accounting for 59% of HIV infections, and heterosexual transmission accounted for 41% in 2006. According to the Indonesian Ministry of Health, recent surveys report that more than 40% of IDUs in Jakarta have tested positive for HIV, and about 13% tested positive in West Java. Many IDUs sell sex to finance their drug habits. Yet in 2005, 25% of IDUs in Bandung, Jakarta, and Medan said they had unprotected paid sex in the last 12 months (Baxter, 2010). The Indonesian archipelago stretches more than 3,000 miles along the Equator. Cultural practices and levels of urbanization have an impact on the HIV/AIDS epidemic (Fredrickson et al., 2008). For instance, a culture of paid and transactional sex among young men and women aged 15 to 24 has been a driving factor in Papua. Among 15 to 24 year olds, HIV-prevalence rates were 3% in 2006, according to the Ministry of Health (Hunter and . Prevalence rates among sex workers in East Javas major urban areas ranged from 9% in Surabaya to 16% in Malang and Probolinggo in 2004 (Haruddin, 2012). Numerous factors put Indonesia in danger of a broader epidemic. Risky sexual behaviors are common. Only 54.7% of sex workers and 56.5% of men who have sex with men (MSM) use condoms consistently, and just 18.5 percent of IDUs consistently use both sterile needles and condoms, according to Indonesias 2006 report to the United Nations General Assembly Special Session on HIV/AIDS (UNGASS). Many IDUs are also sex workers or clients of sex workers, increasing the likelihood of HIV/AIDS spreading to the general population. Awareness of HIV status among at-risk populations is low. According to a 2004-2005 study cited in the UNGASS report, 18.1% of IDUs, 15.4% of MSM, 14.8% of sex workers, and 3.3% of clients of sex workers had received HIV testing in the previous 12 months and knew their test results (Hoshi et al., 2007). Stigma and discrimination persist and many people living with HIV hide their status for fear of losing their jobs, social status, and the support of their families and communities, thus decreasing the likelihood that they will receive proper treatment and increasing the chances of HIV spreading undetected. Feelings of anxiety are a normal, healthy response to the diagnosis, onset, or progression of HIV infection (Daniel et al., 2009). But its important to recognize the difference between this type of anxiety and the sort that signals a clinical disorder. HIV itself does not cause anxiety disorders, but HIV+ people tend to experience more anxiety than the general population. Certain medications used to treat HIV can also cause anxiety symptoms. Fortunately, anxiety disorders are among the most treatable of psychiatric conditions, and respond well to pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatment (Phillipe and Cella, 2009). Among HIV/AIDS-infected patients receiving medical care, 20.3% have been found to have an anxiety disorder, with 12.3% meeting the criteria for panic disorder, 10.4% for PTSD, and 2.8% having generalized anxiety disorder (Nevid, 2012). People living with HIV can experience symptoms of anxiety across the spectrum of anxiety disorders. Adjustment disorder is the most common psychiatric disorder that manifests as anxiety, and is common after receiving an HIV diagnosis (Gropen et al., 2011). The other major types of anxiety disorder are panic disorder and agoraphobia, social phobia and other phobias, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), acute stress disorder and anxiety disorder due to a general medical condition (McDowell and Newell, 1999). HIV+ people experience some anxiety disorders, such as OCD, no more frequently than those who do not have the virus (Post and White, 2004). But the experience of having HIV can prompt or exacerbate other disorders, such as PTSD, especially when someone has an underlying risk for them. Anxiety can present in a variety of ways, including shortness of breath, chest pain, racing heart, dizziness, numbness or tingling, nausea or the sensation of choking. When there are no underlying medical explanations for these symptoms, clinicians are advised to consider an anxiety disorder as the cause (Ruggert and Warner, 2001). Anxiety disorders can seem to flare up at key moments in the experience of HIV disease, such as at the time of initial HIV diagnosis, diagnosis with an opportunistic infection, a declining CD4 count or a blip in viral load, or any other reminder of ongoing HIV infection. Its helpful to recognize that these experiences may trigger anxiety, even symptoms of panic disorder and depression, for an HIV+ person. Besides the discomfort of anxiety disorders, they can interfere in an HIV+ persons overall success in managing HIV because they are a major cause of nonadherence to medication (Post and White, 2004). There is a main question What are appropriate treatments for an HIV+ person suffering from an anxiety disorder. Anxiety is portrayed as a frame of mind concerned about future in association with preparation for possible, upcoming undesirable happenings. The present treatment for the disorder is having a lot of side-effects. An agent with good therapeutic effect and less side-effects is needed for the treatment of anxiety. State Hospital of Waluyo Jati has found an innovation through Nutri Moringa Pudding on decreasing of anxiety level in HIV/AIDS-infected patients. To investigate the Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA) extract of Moringa oleifera Pudding in HIV/AIDS-infected patients. It showed by statistic result by paired sample t-test (SPSS) t. 0.0008, it means P The research subject is determined by the purposive sampling and it was conducted on HIV/AIDS patient. A pretest with the anxieties scale (Nevid, 2012) followed by first group (n=50), then selected a sample that has the highest anxiety score (n=30) and they will be the subjects and treated by Nutri Moringa Pudding for a week. Post-test be held a week after treated. Fixed schedule of moringa pudding consumption be done 3 times a day.       nonR 01 à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚  (x) à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚  02 The Anxiety Scale by Nevid input form consists of 30 vignette like questions designed to rate 3 aspects such as emotional, cognitive, and physiologic of subjects in terms of severity and role in the core character. The questions are clustered in matrix format across three core character types, namely Types A, B, and C. By referencing the strength of scores related to their type domain characteristics, the likely triggers and expressions of maladaptive behavior is identified, which can be applied to a variety of settings and objectives. The matrix structure and associated characteristics are illustrated in Diagram 1 below. Tabel-1. Anxiety Scale Item Scale Favorable Unfavorable DISCUSSION There Anxiety disorders are a serious concern for HIV+ people who dont have good coping strategies and a strong social support network, such as family, friends, or a faith community. Individuals with a history of abuse physical, sexual, emotional are more likely to have an anxiety disorder (Daniels, 2010) People who have unresolved grief, whatever the source, should be screened for anxiety. Those with a personal or family history of anxiety disorders also are at higher risk for developing them. A person with HIV who appears to have symptoms of an anxiety disorder should be given a thorough medical evaluation that includes taking a history of anxiety symptoms to determine onset, frequency, and severity/ anxiety scale (Strongman, 2012). The interviewing clinician should ask about stressful life events, family history, drug and alcohol use (past and present), and any medications the patient is taking (Lee, 2008). Kennedy et al. (2010) explainded that a complete diagnostic evaluation includes testing thyroid, liver, and kidney function, and evaluating for other psychiatric disorders associated with comorbid anxiety (e.g., depression). Certain neuropsychiatric disorders that are common in people with advanced HIV disease (AIDS) must be ruled out before diagnosing anxiety, particularly HIV-associated dementia which can include anxiety. Delirium also commonly features anxiety and agitation. Its especially important to treat the delirium and avoid using anti anxiety medications, which can have serious adverse affects (Jocham and Ullsperger, 2009). A host of general medical conditions are associated with anxiety and must also be ruled out during the diagnostic process. These include fever, dehydration and metabolic complications, CNS opportunistic infections, neurosyphilis, respiratory conditions, endocrinopathies (problems with the endocrine system), cardiovascular disease, and hyperventilation syndrome. A number of HIV-related medications can cause anxiety as a side effect, especially at first. These include acyclovir, antiretrovirals (e.g., efavirenz), corticosteroids, isoniazid, interferons, interleukin-2, and pentamindine. Anxiety is also a side effect of a variety of medications used for other psychiatric complaints (e.g. depression, delirium). In both cases, the anxiety-producing medication should be replaced. If this isnt possible, the anxiety should be treated, preferably with nonpharmacological methods. Cause the medicine has many side effect to their body. There are three different methods used to successfully treat anxiety disorders: pharmacological, nonpharmacological, or a combination of the two. Each patients experience of an anxiety disorder is unique and must be treated as such. Although many anti-anxiety medications are effective, there are also a number of good nonpharmacological treatments to choose from. When someone suffering from anxiety disorder is already taking a variety of medications, or there is concern about potential complications or interactions between medications, it may be preferable to pursue a nonpharmacological approach (Topà §uoÄÅ ¸lu et al., 2009) Medications used to treat anxiety disorders include SSRIs; benzodiazepines, the most commonly used but potentially causing withdrawal symptoms when stopped; venlafaxine; and buspirone. Other anti-anxiety agents that can be effective include antihistamines, beta-adrenergic blocking agents, neuroleptics, tricyclic antidepressants. Its important to consider drug-drug interactions and potential side effects if the treating physician chooses to treat anxiety with one of these medications. Nonpharmacological treatments of HIV-related anxiety include treated by Nutri Moringa Pudding it does not has side effect. Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae) is a food plant withmultiple medical uses, distributed in many countries of the tropicsand subtropics. It has an impressive range of medical uses with high nutritional value. M. oleifera has antibacterial activity and are reported to be rich in antimicrobial agents (Parrota, 2010). These are reported to contain an active antibiotic principle, pterygospermin, which has powerful antibacterial and fungicidal effects to prevent a pain hormonal such as cortisol and sitokinin. These are to be responsible of anxiety if it is in abnormal condition (Lizzy, 2011). In Nutri Moringa Pudding, a similar compound is found to be responsible for the antibacterial effects and it will result GABA, dopamine in body. The possesses antimicrobial activity attributed to the presence of 4-ÃŽÂ ±-L-rhamnosyloxy benzyl isothiocyanate. The aglycone of deoxyniazimicine isolated from the chloroform fraction of an ethanol was found to be responsible for the antibacterial and antifu ngal activities to prevent of pain hormonal secretion, then produce GABA, dopamine, and encephaline. Nutri Moringa Pudding has been shown to possess antifungal activity that showed antibacterial effect against pathogen bacteria in digestivus system. It was found to inhibitthe growth of microorganisms. Different nutritionts of this pudding contain a profile of important minerals, and are a good source of protein, GABA, vitamins, ÃŽÂ ² -carotene, amino acids and various phenolics (Toefilo, 2003). Indonesia has used Moringa oleifera modification such as Nutri Moringa Pudding cause it is plant provides a rich and rare combination of zeatin, quercetin, ÃŽÂ ² sitosterol, caffeoylquinic acid and kaempferol such as Walujo Jati hospital in Kraksaan, Probolinggo, East Java Indonesia used it since 2012 to overcome anxiety, malprotein nutrition, diabetes, and cancer. In addition to its compelling high nutritional value, M. oleifera is very important for its medicinal values. Picture-2. Nutri Moringa Pudding ImplicationPicture-1.GABA-ergic Selected samples were 30 subjects treated by Nutri Moringa Pudding showed the reduction of HIV/AIDS-infected patients with 10 mg/kg GABA-ergic in Moringa Pudding. The result of the post-test by Paired Sample t- test analysis (SPSS 19) with a value oft= 0.008 or P Tabel-2. Hypotetic Resume Pre-post result Z -2.549a Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .008 Based on positive ranks. Paired samle t- Test 10mg GABA in Nutri Moringa Pudding to overcome anxiety disorder. GABA (gamma- aminobutyric acid) is an amino acid. It is the main inhibitory (calming) neurotransmitter in the brain. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers between neurons (nerve cells). The body make GABA from glutamine a vital amino acid in the brain (Parrota, 2010). Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. GABA is a natural calming and anti-epileptic and anti anxiety agent . It is vital for proper brain functioning. GABA also helps bodies make endorphins chemicals that make them feel happy. Lizzy (2011) said GABA influences our mood because it reduces high levels of the hormones adrenalin, noradrenalin and dopamine, and it affects the neurotransmitter serotonin. Having enough GABA in the brain is linked to being relaxed and happy. Having too little GABA is linked to the feeeling anxious, sleeping problem insomnia, stressed, tense and depressed. when people are nervous or anxious their brains produce more beta brain waves than alpha brain waves. Taking GABA increases the amount of alpha waves. Alpha waves are linked to clear thinking, good focus and being in the zone or the flow. In these mind states, in which people are focused, calm and productive, they have high amounts of alpha brain wave activity, finally it can increase CD4 of HIV/AIDS-infected patients. This scientific paper has showed the effect of Nutri Moringa Pudding on decreasing of HIV/AIDS-infected patients. The research showed that the GABA, dopamine, and encephaline in Nutri Moringa Pudding may have produced by multiple mechanisms. It was 20-200mg/kg of the GABA in pudding extract, it appeared that supplementation was able to cause a reduction of anxiety in HIV/AIDS-infected patients Pharmachology intervention has many side effect that it can be danger for human. Nutri Moringa Pudding show the innovative of anxiety disorder and it saved for everyone who consumed it. Promotion Nutri Moringa Pudding must be done by physician, nutritionist, health practice, psychologist, consultant, etc. the value added that Nutri Moringa Consumption showed a good result for PEM (Protein Energy Malnutrition) cases, cause it has double protein from eggs. The authors are thankful to Her Royal Highness Princess Tantriana Sari Hasan Aminuddin as a Probolinggo Regence for support her delegation in International; also Dr. Anang Budi Yoelijanto (MD) as a Director of Waluyo Jati State Hospital for research funding and international publication; Nutritionist Team (Instalasi Gizi) Waluyo Jati State Hospital for providing the necessary for the preparation of the research; Dr. Mirrah Samiyah (MD), Namira School, and Dr. Frizka Eliza (MD) for preparing the previous research; Daily Newspaper Kedaulatan Rakyat Yogyakarta, Indonesia for National Publication our research; Dr. Alimatus Sahrah, Dr. Ir. Wisnu Adi Yulianto, Mrs. Reny Yuniasanti, Mr. Awan Santosa at Mercu Buana University of Yogyakarta for supporting of academic material research; Mrs. Rumaniyah, Prof. Dr. Sukarti Moeljopawiro at Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta Indonesia for programming the simulations; Ms. Ayu Deni Pramita for being our research volunteer; Academic Lecturers at Colle ge and Public Health Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand for helping with providing the journal; and our wishes to thank Prof. Dr. L. T. Handoko as a Deputy Chairman for Engineering Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) for helping with writing the article. References Baxter, 2010. The quality of life in Tazmanian on HIV medicine. Massachusetts: MIT, Inc., 9: 132-133. Braet, C., L. Claus, S. Verbeken and L.V. Vlierberghe, 2007. Impulsivity in overweight children. European Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 16(8): 473-483. DOI 10.1007/s00787-007-0623-2. Broman, C., 2009. The longitudinal impact of adolescent drug use on socioeconomic outcomes in young adulthood. Journal of Child Adolescent Substance Abuse, 18(2): 131-143. [Accessed ERIC Database]. Chris, D., 2012. HIV/AIDS growing and the death of human. United State of America: McGraw-Hill, Inc, 7: 67-69. Daniel, J., M. Hickman, J. Macleod, N. Wiles, A. Lingford Hughes and M. Farrell, 2009. Is socioeconomic status in early life associated with drug use? A systematic review of the evidence. Drug Alcohol Review, 28(2): 142-153. DOI 10.1111/j.1465-3362.2008.00042.x. Daniels, M., 2010. Gallup: Conservatives outnumber liberals 2:1, church attendance rising. Secular News Daily. Available from http:// www.secularnewsdaily.com/2010/06/28/gallup-conservatives- outnumber-liberals-21-church-attendance-rising/ [Accessed August 15, 2010]. Fred, B., 2012. Psikologi Kedokteran dan Kesehatan. Jakarta: PT. Grasindo, 14: 43-45. Fredrickson, R., P.J. Snyder, J. Cromer, E. Thomas, M. Lewis and P. Maruff, 2008. The use of effect sizes to characterize the nature of cognitive change in psychopharmacological studies: An example with scopolamine. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical Experimental, 23(5): 425-436. DOI 10.1002/ hup.942. Gropen, R., N. Clark Chiarelli, C. Hoisington and S. Ehrlich, 2011. The importance of executive function in earlyscience education. Available from http://ltd.edc.org/sites/ltd.edc.org/files/Gropen%20et%20al%20CDP%20in%20press%20122110.pdf[Accessed September 30, 2011]. Haruddin, A., 2012. Studi pelaksanaan HIV voluntary counseling and testing (VCT). Yogyakarta: Universitas Gadjah Mada, 1: 91-92. Hoshi, R., K. Mullins, C. Boundy, C. Brignell, P. Piccini and H. Curran, 2007. Neurocognitive function in current and exusers of ecstasy in comparison to both matched polydrug using controls and drugnaÃÆ' ¯ve controls. Psychopharmacology, 194(3): 371-379. DOI 10.1007/ s00213-007-0837-5. Jocham, W. and M. Ullsperger, 2009. Neuropharmacology of performance monitoring. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 33(1): 48-60. DOI 10.1016/ j.neubiorev.2008.08.011. Kennedy, W.O., R. Veasey, A. Watson, F. Dodd, E. Jones, S. Maggini and C.F. Haskell, 2010. Effects of high-dose B vitamin complex with vitamin C and minerals on subjective mood and performance in healthy males. Psychopharmacology, 211(1): 55-68. DOI 10.1007/s00213-010-1870-3. Lee, K., 2008. A coverage prevention of HIV/AIDS. Malaysia: Health Ministry, Inc, 1: 22-25. Lizzy, 2011. Chemotherapy of bacterial infections. Part 4: Potential anticholera agents. European J. Exper. Biol, 6(3): 168-169. McDowell and Newell, 1999. WHO on developing og the quality of life: A review of public policy. International Conference on Public Health. New York: Massachusetts Institute Technology, Inc. Nevid, S., 2012. Kecemasan bagaimana mengatasi penyebabnya. Jakarta :Pustaka Populer Obor, 1: 56. Parrota, J.A., 2010. Healing plants of Peninsular India. Wallingford, UK and New York, NY, USA: CABI Publishing. Phillipe and Cella, 2009. Related health on improving of quality of life. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 5: 88. Post and White, 2004. Public health on influencing the quality of life. USA: Springer, Inc. 2: 91. Ruggert and Warner, 2001. The quality of life on HIV medicine. United State of America: Missouri Corp, 8: 110. Seligson and Peterson, 2010. AIDS prevention and treatment: Hope, humor, and healing. New York: Hemisphere Pub, 114. Strongman, K., 2012. The psychiatric of emotion fifth edition from everyday life to theory. New Zealand : Departement of Psychology, University of Canterbury, 2: 201-203. Toefilo, S., 2003. Health plants for human well-being. Minnesota: Minnesota University, Inc, 2: 61-62. Topà §uoÄÅ ¸lu, N.V., O. Fistikci, O. Ekinci, G.A. Gimzal and A.B. Cà ¶mert, 2009. Assessment of executive functions in social phobia patients using the wisconsin card sorting test. Tà ¼rk Psikiyatri Dergisi = Turkish Journal of Psychiatry, 20(4): 322-331. [Accessed EBSCOhost]. Appendix Picture-3. Nutri Moringa Pudding SachetPicture-4. Nutri Moringa Pudding      Ã‚  

Confusion and Personal Identity in Rip Van Winkle Essay -- Rip Van Win

   Rip Van Winkle tells the story of a man who, on a trek into the Kaatskill mountains, mysteriously sleeps away twenty years of his life during the Revolutionary War. When he returns home, he finds that things have dramatically changed; King George no longer has control over the colonies, and many of his friends have either died or left town. At this point, the story reaches its climax, where Van Winkle realizes that his life may be forever changed. To this point, Rip Van Winkle has had only to deal with the change in his surroundings. Having no doubts about his personal character, his fears remain singular only briefly, for when the crowd points to a man whom they call Rip Van Winkle, he begins to question his being as well. "I'm not myself-I'm somebody else-that's me yonder-no-that's somebody else, got into my shoes..." Frustration has set in by this point, as our hero Rip cannot explain the events that have happened to him. In one night, his world had drastically changed, and no logical explanation can be found. The larger issue at hand, though, is the identity crisis that Van Winkle is suffering. Upon a detailed analysis of this climactic section, two dominating themes are found: confusion and the issue of personal identity. There are constant references to these ideas throughout the selection. That Van Winkle is confused seems obvious and is quite understandable, but this confusion extends beyond the bizarre sequence of events encountered. When Rip notices the person that the township refers to as Rip Van Winkle, it is as though he is looking into a mirror, for this person portrays a "precise counterpoint of himself." Although Rip visually sees this other person, his examination becomes a personal reflect... ...oncerns over which groups would provide leadership for the masses, and how those masses were to be represented. Men like Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin, who had provided great leadership for this fledgling nation, were leaving the fate of America in new hands. The pessimists voiced their opinions, but there was a great feeling off optimism as the Industrial Revolution began to harbor its effects throughout the United States and the world. The issue of identity seemed a pertinent issue at the time. In this story, Rip Van Winkle's search for identity provides, perhaps, the most stimulating aspect of the story. In the selected passage, we see his character go through tremendous emotional changes. In only one paragraph, we watch his life unfold as he searches for the inner truth that he had been denying. In one paragraph, we watched a man find himself.   

Cigarette Advertising Essay -- Tobacco Advertising

Smoking has become one of the world’s main concerns after the realization of its effect on human health. Tobacco was first introduced by Native Americans and was considered to be harmless and a stress reliever. Eventually, this habit became popular all over the world, and as normal as food. The increase in technology has brought out all the negative aspects and the side effects of smoking. Scientific analysis has proven that smoking is one of the main causes for death in the world. Since smoking has become a part of everyday life, quitting it has become even harder for those who are addicted. Advertisements and social pressure cause smoking with its devastating, life-threatening effects. Advertisements in the past were responsible for making smoking more popular all over the world. Many individual’s decision to smoke comes from advertisements which support smoking. Proclamations made by cigarette companies claim people will feel happier, more glamorous, and healthier. A suggestive proclamation by â€Å"Lucky Strike† company states, â€Å"Smoke Luckies! You’ll get the happy blending of perfect mildness and rich taste that fine tobacco – and only fine tobacco – can give you. . . . So get complete smoking enjoyment. Be Happy – Go Lucky today!† The company has used â€Å"lucky† as its product name trying to make consumers believe that anyone who smokes these cigarettes is lucky and will have happiness. Advertisements like this brought attention to cigarettes and set the stage for smoking to be accepted. It became common for people to smoke at any age. Young and old were all smoking cigarettes without understanding their consequences. Also, social pressure is the most important cause of people smoking because they see â€Å"everybody is do... ...rtisements. Although smoking can only cause problems to human health compared to the benefits, people will not stop. That is why everyone should try to avoid it. Smoking is a disaster for societies; it affects the economy as people smoke and as their need increases their habit pulls them even more. Decreasing their ability to be more productive can be the result of smoking. If countries are looking for their welfare, countries should start to make cigarettes illegal. Overall, smoking always works against our wellbeing. Works Cited Jacobs, Marjorie. From the First to the Last Ash: The History, Economics & Hazards of Tobacco. Cambridge: Marjorie Jacobs, 1995. Print. Joseph, Saad. Personal interview. 1 Nov. 2013. Lucky Strike. Advertisement. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2013. "Teens Health." Kids Health Smoking. Kids health, n.d. Web. 02 Nov. 2013.